One of the most dramatic and enduring stories in religious and historical tradition is that of the Exodus—the mass departure of the Israelites from slavery in Egypt, led by Moses. Central to this story is the mysterious Pharaoh who pursued the Israelites into the Red Sea, only to be engulfed by the waters. But who exactly was this Pharaoh? Despite the prominence of the story, the Bible never explicitly names him. Historians, theologians, and archaeologists have debated this question for centuries. Let’s explore the evidence and theories surrounding the identity of the Pharaoh of the Exodus.
The Biblical Account
The story of the Exodus is primarily found in the Book of Exodus, the second book of the Bible. According to the narrative, God commands Moses to lead the Israelites out of Egypt, where they had been enslaved for generations. Moses confronts Pharaoh with the famous demand: “Let my people go.”
Pharaoh resists, prompting God to unleash ten plagues upon Egypt. After the final and most devastating plague—the death of the firstborn—Pharaoh relents and allows the Israelites to leave. However, he soon changes his mind and pursues them with his army to the shores of the Red Sea. In a miraculous event, the waters part for the Israelites to cross and then return, drowning the Egyptian forces, including Pharaoh himself, according to some interpretations.
Notably, the text does not name the Pharaoh at any point in this narrative, making it difficult to identify him with certainty.
Egyptian History and the Dating of the Exodus
To identify the Pharaoh of the Exodus, scholars must first establish when the Exodus occurred, if it occurred at all in the historical sense. There are two primary schools of thought regarding the dating of the Exodus:
1. Early Date (15th Century BCE)
This theory places the Exodus around 1446 BCE, based on 1 Kings 6:1, which states that the Exodus occurred 480 years before the construction of Solomon’s Temple (around 966 BCE).
If this date is correct, the Pharaoh of the Exodus would likely be from the 18th Dynasty, and the candidate often proposed is Thutmose III or sometimes Amenhotep II. Thutmose III was a powerful and militaristic ruler who expanded Egypt’s empire significantly.
However, the archaeological record during this period does not show evidence of a large population of Semitic slaves in Egypt or signs of a massive departure or societal collapse.
2. Late Date (13th Century BCE)
Many modern scholars favor a later date, around 1260–1230 BCE, largely based on archaeological evidence and historical references to the presence of Israelites in Canaan by the 13th century BCE.
This would place the Exodus during the reign of Ramesses II (1279–1213 BCE), one of Egypt’s most powerful and well-documented pharaohs. The city of Pi-Ramesses, mentioned in Exodus 1:11, was built during his reign, which supports this timeframe.
Ramesses II, also known as Ramses the Great, ruled for 66 years and led numerous military campaigns. If he were the Pharaoh of the Exodus, he would have pursued Moses into the Red Sea, though there is no Egyptian record of such a catastrophic loss or event.
Why Isn’t the Pharaoh Named?
The absence of a name in the biblical account has intrigued scholars and theologians for centuries. Several theories have been proposed:
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Theological Intent: Some believe the anonymity is deliberate. By not naming the Pharaoh, the focus remains on God’s power, not on any specific human king.
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Literary Convention: In ancient Near Eastern literature, it was not uncommon to leave enemies unnamed, especially if they were defeated or disgraced.
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Historical Gaps: If the Exodus story is a composite of various historical memories and traditions passed down orally, details like names may have been lost or deemed unimportant.
Egyptian Silence on the Exodus
One of the challenges in identifying the Pharaoh of the Exodus is the lack of Egyptian records mentioning such an event. Ancient Egyptian texts were often written to glorify the pharaohs and their accomplishments. A mass slave revolt, a series of devastating plagues, and the drowning of the Egyptian army would have been catastrophic events that Egypt’s elite had little incentive to record.
Moreover, historical revisionism was common in Egyptian records. Pharaohs often erased the names of their disgraced predecessors or major failures from official records.
Ramesses II: The Most Popular Candidate
Despite the lack of direct evidence, Ramesses II remains the most popular candidate for the Pharaoh of the Exodus in both scholarly and popular accounts.
There are several reasons:
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Name Reference: The Bible mentions the Israelites building the city of Raamses (Pi-Ramesses), which was the capital during Ramesses II’s reign.
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Timeline: Archaeological evidence from Canaan, including destruction layers and settlement patterns, aligns more closely with a late 13th-century Exodus.
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Cultural Impact: The image of Ramesses II has loomed large in both Egyptian history and modern media, notably in films like The Ten Commandments (1956) and Exodus: Gods and Kings (2014), where Ramesses is portrayed as the unnamed Pharaoh.
Other Pharaohs Proposed
While Ramesses II is the most well-known candidate, other Pharaohs have been suggested:
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Amenhotep II: Proposed by those favoring the early Exodus date. He ruled during the 15th century BCE and left behind fewer records than his father Thutmose III.
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Merneptah: The son of Ramesses II, who ruled shortly after him. The Merneptah Stele, dating to around 1207 BCE, contains the earliest known extrabiblical reference to "Israel" as a people group in Canaan. This may suggest that the Israelites were already established in the land by this time.
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Akhenaten: Some fringe theories associate the monotheistic leanings of Akhenaten with the rise of Hebrew monotheism, but there is no direct evidence linking him to the Exodus story.
The Question of Historicity
It’s important to note that some scholars believe the Exodus story is not a literal historical account, but rather a theological and national origin narrative. According to this view, the story draws on various historical memories of oppression, migration, and divine deliverance, possibly inspired by smaller-scale events rather than a single, massive Exodus.
In this view, the Pharaoh of the Exodus is symbolic—a representation of oppression, tyranny, and resistance to divine will—rather than a specific historical figure.
Conclusion
So, what was the name of the Pharaoh who chased Moses into the Red Sea? The Bible doesn’t tell us. Historical and archaeological evidence offer clues, but no definitive answer. The most widely accepted candidate among scholars is Ramesses II, due to both biblical references and the timing of known events. However, others point to Thutmose III, Amenhotep II, or Merneptah, depending on how the Exodus is dated.
Ultimately, the Pharaoh remains unnamed—a powerful symbol of human pride brought low by divine intervention. Whether or not we ever uncover his identity, the story of the Pharaoh and Moses continues to inspire, challenge, and provoke debate thousands of years later.
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